The Situation of Universities in Nazi Germany [1]
Germany came under the yoke of National Socialist views when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. The name of the Weimar Republic changed to the 3rd German Empire, and the dictatorship of Leader Hitler (Führer) began. This change, which became final on January 30, 1933, brought with it a series of regulations determined by law in both the state administration system and the social order. Hitler's efforts to liquidate citizens of Jewish origin from businesses and society, in line with his desire for the pure German race to form the basis of the state and society, began immediately when he came to power. A comprehensive regulation made in this direction was announced to the public with the decision published in the official gazette of the state on April 7, 1933, stating that those of non-pure race could not work in state institutions. The decision includes not only liquidation from state institutions, but also banning from the profession if deemed necessary, and the regulation has been implemented as of the date of its publication. Over time, non-Jewish people who opposed the government's decisions were oppressed as "undesirable persons opposed to Hitler and the state", lost their jobs, and even had to leave the country.
The dismissals that took place after the publication of the decision in question dealt a heavy blow to the branches of science in Germany, such as sociology, economics, political science, psychology, biochemistry and atomic physics, which are prominent and developing in line with the developments of the age. This decision, which came into force after the congress of the Nationalization of Universities held in Leipzig in March 1933, brought with it a series of new practices and rules for universities. Some of these are the obligation to give the "Hitler-Salute" in classrooms, to equip the areas with national socialist emblems and indicators, to wear black or brown uniforms in official organizations to be held at the university or in ceremonies and oath ceremonies showing loyalty to Hitler. In addition, it became mandatory for academics to attend meetings requested by Hitler, military defensive exercises, or national socialist professional associations and their meetings. Practices against people of non-pure race include not only the dismissal of academics, but also budding academics and university students. As of April 1933, the granting of the title of medical doctor as of November 13, 1933, membership in the German Student Union as of April 12, 1933, and teaching education as of December 19, 1933, the right to study medicine for Jews were banned in all universities of the country. With a decision taken on July 17, 1934, the state was also given the right to cancel the diplomas of Jews who were deprived of citizenship, and with the "Imperial Associate Professorship Promotion Law" dated December 13, 1934, it was stipulated that one must be of pure race for the title of associate professor. As a result of all these practices, 1684 academics had to leave their jobs at German universities in the 1933/34 period. By 1938, 39% of Germany's total number of academics were liquidated within the scope of these published decisions and laws.
Philipp Schwartz was born in Hungary on July 19, 1894. His parents were both born in Hungary and are both of Jewish origin. Schwartz's area of expertise was pathology, and his profession was as a Professor of Pathology at the university.
He worked at the Institute of Pathology at the University of Frankfurt between 1920-33. He served as a professor in the field of Genetic Pathology and Pathological Anatomy at the same institute between 1927-33, and had to flee to Switzerland in March 1933 due to the practices of the Nazi regime. During 1933-45, he served as president of the Emergency Aid Association for German Scientists Abroad, which he founded. He went to Türkiye with the invitation he received for the first meetings in October 1933, and during the process, he ensured the arrival of around 200 scientists and artists Türkiye.
Schwartz, as one of the first people to be in danger when Hitler's practices against Jewish citizens began, left the country in a hurry and went to Switzerland, where his father-in-law, the naturalist Sinai Tschulok, lived. He became aware of the work of Albert Malche, who was in Türkiye at the same time, through a letter sent to him by a friend in May 1933. After telling him about Malche's work in Türkiye and that he could contact him, his friend indicated as a note that Malche was not Jewish. Schwartz reports that two months after arriving in Switzerland, he received a long list of scientists who had been victimized by the mass madness caused by the Nazi regime. Applications to the Emergency Assistance Association for German Scientists Abroad, which he founded, came one after another after the establishment of the association was announced in the newspaper Zürcher Zeitung. His daughter, Susan Ferenz Schwartz, stated that she was informed about the university reform that Atatürk had initiated in Türkiye by saying, "Concurrently with all that was happening in Germany, Atatürk came up with an incredible offer."
According to the information obtained from Philipp Schwartz's own words, he immediately contacted the Turkish authorities and received the answer that a miracle was expected from him. If it could be organized - and the person expected to do this was Schwartz - a staff of 30-40 academicians were to be allocated at the university immediately. He expressed Türkiye's support and preparation as being told by Turkish officials in his meeting: "Bring your people, we will do what is necessary." "We cannot send our young people to Europe, but we want to establish a European university here and we can do this." For Schwartz, being able to serve Türkiye, contributing to it, and bringing something there that was not present was as important as the opportunity to take refuge in Türkiye.
During the first period of organizing this project, Schwartz immediately contacted this foundation and asked for its support regarding migration to Turkey. He conveyed his request by stating that the Turkish Government did its best to help them emigrate and made their job as easy as possible, but that the support of the Rockefeller Foundation would increase the respectability of immigrants in this position. This request of Schwartz mobilized the Foundation and directed it to provide support. In early 1934, the Foundation sent an auditor to examine the adaptation of these immigrants in Turkey and their contributions to university reform. The notes this person took about Schwartz and Turkish Universities as a result of his careful observations are remarkable. R.A. The auditor named Lambert described Schwartz as a leader with the dynamism required by the situation. But he is of the opinion that he is exaggeratedly optimistic about the ability of the Turks. This opinion is based on Schwartz's statement that he sees Turkish students as more serious and enthusiastic than German students, and that they do not have the indifference of the Central European youth. The facts that the lessons were conducted through translators, the students did not know enough German, and Schwartz did not know enough Turkish, misled him in assessing the students' situation. It is also stated in Lambert's report that Schwartz learned Turkish quickly and that Hungarian helped him at this point. Schwartz made another important request from the Rockefeller Foundation in 1933. When he started working in Turkey, he requested the support of the foundation to remove the dentist Alfred Kantorowicz from the concentration camp where he was held and sent to Turkey; Kantorowicz became famous in his field and cured the teeth of the Shah of Iran, Shah Reza Pahlavi, who came to Turkey in 1934. Although Kantorowicz had a mutually signed contract for his work in Turkey at the time, he was detained by the German Government, yet as a result of Schwartz's efforts, he was permitted to immigrate to Turkey.Türkiye’nin uygulamaları ve Schwartz’ın iş birliği ile 1933-39 yılları arasında, 139 bilim insanı görevlendirilmiştir. Bu kişilerin görevlendirilme dağılımları Biographisches Handbuch der deutschsprachigen Emigration nach 1933 başlıklı, Alman göçmenler hakkındaki kapsamlı çalışmada 1933-39 yılları için aşağıdaki gibi verilmiştir:
With Turkey's practices and Schwartz's cooperation, 139 scientists were appointed to universities between 1933-39. The assignment distributions of these people were given as follows for the years 1933-39 in the comprehensive study on German immigrants titled Biographisches Handbuch der deutschsprachigen Emigration nach 1933:
Distribution of Faculty Members and Staff assigned to Istanbul University;
Faculty of Medicine 19 Professors, 20 Assistants, 7 Assistants
Mathematics and Science 17 Professors, 4 Assistants
Faculty of Letters 10 Professors
Law 10 Professors
Country distribution of faculty members assigned to Ankara University;
Conservatory: 12 people from Germany, 9 people from Austria
Language, History, Geography: 5 people from Germany, 1 person from Austria
Faculty of Medicine: 7 people from Germany, 1 person from Austria
Faculty of Agriculture 3 people are from Germany, 1 person is from Austria
Political Science 1 person from Germany, 1 person from Austria
Einstein’ın Türkiye’ye mektubu
After Hitler came to power in January 1933, he began to impose heavy pressure on Jews and dissidents. One of those who experienced this pressure was Professor Albert Einstein.
Albert Einstein could not stand the Nazi pressure, which made his life and career difficult, and moved to Paris. However, the Jewish professors in Germany were still not safe. These valuable and experienced people were looking for a safe country to take shelter in. For this very reason, a letter signed by Albert Einstein was sent to the Prime Ministry of the Turkish Republic on September 17, 1933.
His Excellency;
As the honorary president of the World Union of OSE Societies, I request your Excellency to appeal to you to allow 40 professors and doctors from Germany to continue their scientific and medical studies in Türkiye. The people in question cannot practice their profession due to the laws in force in Germany. These people, most of whom have extensive experience, knowledge and scientific merit, can prove to be extremely useful if they live in a new country. These 40 people, experienced experts and distinguished academicians, to whom we have asked Your Excellency to grant permission to settle in your country and continue their studies, were selected from among the many applications made to our association. These scientists wish to work in any of your institutions, in accordance with the instructions of your government, for a period of one year, without expecting any remuneration. In support of this application, I take the liberty to express my hope that if your government accepts the request, you will not only be performing a high level of humanitarian action, but it will also bring profit to your country.
Honored to be His Excellency's faithful servant,
Prof. Albert Einstein
The Prime Minister of the time, İsmet İnönü, read this letter and sent the letter to the Minister of National Education, Reşit Galip Bey, who was serving at that time. But the result was negative. And İsmet İnönü sent the following reply letter to Einstein:
“Dear Professor,
I received your letter dated September 17, 1933, requesting the admission to Türkiye of forty professors and physicians who could no longer carry out their scientific and medical studies in Germany due to the laws governing Germany.
I also noted that these gentlemen would agree to work unpaid in our institutions for a year under the orders of our government.
Although I accept that your offer is very attractive, I have to say that I do not see the possibility of reconciling it with the laws and regulations of our country.
Dear Professor, as you know, we have employed more than forty professors and physicians under contract. Most of them are in the same political conditions as the professors and doctors who are the subject of your letter, and have the same qualifications and capacities as them. These professors and physicians agreed to work for us in accordance with the currently valid laws and regulations.
We are currently trying to build an organism that is a sensitive mechanism and includes members who are very different in terms of origin, culture and language. For this reason, unfortunately, it will not be possible for us to employ more personnel than these gentlemen under the current conditions.
Dear Professor, I express my regret for not being able to satisfy your request, and I ask you to have faith in my deepest feelings.
(Source: Rıfat Bali, WHO INVITED EINSTEIN TO TÜRKIYE?)
Kaynak: Başbakanlık Cumhuriyet arşivi, ref: 030.10.116.810.3
The request was rejected. However, a total of about 190 German scientists, but not the 40 scientists Einstein wanted, managed to come to Turkey thanks to Atatürk; they had the opportunity to work in that difficult period. Despite the opposition of Prime Minister İnönü and his cabinet, Atatürk did not hesitate to open the doors of the Turkish universities to these important scientists.
Some names of Germans who took refuge in Turkey[3]
- Albert Malche: Pedagogy professor and political scientist from Geneva was appointed by the Turkish Government to investigate the needs and possibilities of reform in existing Turkish universities and to make the necessary recommendations. The information provided by Albert Malche presented a unique opportunity to the Turkish Government led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the Minister of Education, Reşit Galip. This opportunity was that well-known scientists who had to emigrate due to the Nazi regime in Germany took part in the desired reform studies in the universities in Turkey, such as the establishment of a completely Western university in Istanbul and later in Ankara.
- Prof. Philipp Schwartz: He signed the contract with the Turkish Minister of National Education in 1933 on behalf of the 'Solidarity Union of German Scientists Abroad', established in Switzerland, regarding the sending of German professors and scientists to Turkey.
- Prof. Ernst Reuter: Between 1935 and 1946, he worked as an expert on administrative and traffic issues at the Turkish Ministry of Transport, served as a professor of municipal politics and urban planning at the Faculty of Political Sciences of Ankara University, and took part in the establishment of the City Planning Institute.
The German Embassy Private School today bears the name of E
- Prof. Ernst E. Hirsch: After 1933, he worked as a professor of commercial law, sociology of law and philosophy of law at Istanbul and then Ankara University.
- Prof. Gerhard Kessler: He served as a professor in the field of economic policy at Istanbul University between 1933 and 1951, and took part in the establishment of the first Turkish trade union together with Orhan Tuna in 1946.
- Prof. Fritz Neumark: He served as a professor of economic policy at Istanbul University between 1933 and 1951, and was also an advisor to the Turkish Government in the same field.
- Prof. Alexander Rüstow: He served as a professor of economic history and economic geography at Istanbul University between 1933 and 1949.
- Prof. Paul Hindemith: Hindemith came to Turkey 4 times between 1935 and 1937 and prepared proposals for the establishment of a state conservatory in Ankara and the renewal of the Presidential Symphony Orchestra. For this purpose, he suggested appointing experts such as Ernst Praetorias, Eduard Zuckmayer, Carl Ebert and Licco Amar.
-Dr. Ernst Praetorius: Philosophy teacher Praetorius resigned from his post as Director General of Music in Weimar in 1933 in protest against the National Socialists. Starting from 1935, he was assigned to establish the conservatory in Ankara and restructure the Presidential Symphony Orchestra.
- Carl Ebert: In 1936, he submitted an expert report on the establishment of theater schools and became a lecturer at the state conservatory.
- Eduard Zuckmayer: He founded and directed the Ankara State Conservatory together with P. Hindemith and C. Ebert since 1936. Zuckmayer remained in Ankara until his death on July 2, 1972, where he worked as a university lecturer, concert pianist, orchestra conductor and advisor to the Turkish Government.
- Bruno Taut: architect and urban planner: He was the most well-known representative of 'contemporary architecture', known as "Neues Bauen". He served as a professor at the Istanbul Academy of Fine Arts from 1936 until his death in 1938. During the same period, he was the Head of the Department of Architecture and worked in the Construction Department of the Ministry of National Education. He prepared the projects of school buildings with his colleagues such as Taut, W. Schütte, Schütte-Lihotzky, Deppler and Hillinger, and according to the project he drew in 1937, the Ankara University Faculty of Letters Building was built.
- Clemens Holzmeister: In 1940, he worked as a lecturer at Istanbul Technical University and, upon Ataturk's orders, he undertook the project and construction of the Turkish Grand National Assembly and Ministry of Labor buildings in the capital Ankara.
- Hans Gustav Güterbock was a lecturer in the archeology department of Ankara University between 1936 and 1948.
