Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year

In Hebrew, Rosh Hashanah means "head of the year" or "first of the year." Rosh Hashanah is commonly known as the Jewish New Year and usually takes place between September and October.

No work is permitted on Rosh Hashanah. Much of the day is spent in synagogue, where the regular daily liturgy is somewhat expanded.

For most Jews, Rosh Hashanah is a time to begin introspection, looking back at the mistakes of the past year and planning the changes to make in the new year. It is an occasion for family gathering and meals. A popular observance during this holiday is eating apples dipped in honey, a symbol of the Jewish wish for a sweet new year.  Jews also eat pomegranates, so that their fulfilled wishes in the new year will be as numerous as the seeds in a pomegranate. Another popular practice of the holiday is Tashlikh ("casting off"). Jews walk to flowing water, such as a creek or river, on the afternoon of the first day, symbolically casting off their sins.

Yom Kippur

Yom Kippur is probably the most important holiday of the Jewish year and takes place eight days after Rosh Hashanah. Many Jews who do not observe any other Jewish custom will refrain from work, fast and/or attend synagogue services on this day.

"Yom Kippur" means "Day of Atonement". It is a day set aside to "afflict the soul," to atone for the sins of the past year.  Yom Kippur atones only for sins between man and God, not for sins against another person. To atone for sins against another person, one must first seek reconciliation with that person, righting the wrongs committed against him or her if possible. That must all be done before Yom Kippur.

Yom Kippur is a complete Sabbath; no work can be performed on that day. Jews are supposed to refrain from eating and drinking (even water) on Yom Kippur. It is a complete 25-hour fast beginning before sunset on the evening before Yom Kippur and ending after nightfall on the day of Yom Kippur. The Talmud also specifies additional restrictions that are less well-known: washing and bathing, anointing one's body (with cosmetics, deodorants, etc.), wearing leather shoes, and engaging in sexual relations are all prohibited on Yom Kippur.

As always, any of these restrictions can be lifted where a threat to life or health is involved. In fact, children under the age of nine and women in childbirth (from the time labor begins until three days after birth) are not permitted to fast, even if they want to.  Most of the holiday is spent in the synagogue, in prayer. It is customary to wear white on the holiday, which symbolizes purity and calls to mind the promise that our sins shall be made as white as snow. Some people wear a kittel, the white robe in which the dead are buried.

Pesach or Passover

Pesach begins on the 15th day of the Jewish month of Nissan. It is the first of the three major festivals with both historical and agricultural significance (the other two are Shavu'ot and Sukkot). Agriculturally, it represents the beginning of the harvest season in Israel, but little attention is paid to this aspect of the holiday. The primary observances of Pesach are related to the Exodus from Egypt after generations of slavery.

The name "Pesach" comes from the Hebrew root meaning to pass through, to pass over, to exempt or to spare. It refers to the Jewish belief that God "passed over" the houses of the Jews when he was slaying the firstborn of Pharaoh's people. "Pesach" is also the name of the sacrificial offering (a lamb) that was made in the Temple in Jerusalem on this holiday. The holiday is also referred to as the Spring Festival.

Probably the most significant observance related to Pesach involves the removal of chametz (leaven bread) from Jewish homes. This commemorates the fact that the Jews had to leave Egypt in such hurry that they did not have time to let their bread rise. It is also a symbolic way of removing the "puffiness" (arrogance, pride) from the soul.

The grain product eaten during Pesach is called matzah. Matzah is unleavened bread, made simply from flour and water and cooked very quickly. This is the bread that the Jews made for their flight from Egypt.

On the first night of Pesach, Jews have a special family meal filled with ritual to remind them of the importance of freedom and rejection of oppression and slavery. Another important message of this holiday is to welcome all strangers, as Jews are reminded that once their forefathers were treated as strangers in ancient Egypt. This meal is called a seder, which comes from a Hebrew root meaning "order," because there is a specific set of information that must be discussed in a specific order.

Pesach lasts for seven days. The first and last days of the holiday are days on which no work is permitted.

Festival of Sukkot

The Festival of Sukkot begins on the fifth day after Yom Kippur. It is quite a drastic transition, from one of the most solemn holidays in the Jewish year to one of the most joyous.

Historically, Sukkot commemorates the forty-year period during which the children of Israel were wandering in the desert, living in temporary shelters. Agriculturally, Sukkot is a harvest festival. The word "Sukkot" means "booths," and refers to the temporary dwellings that Jews are commanded to live in during this holiday in memory of the period of wandering.  Ever since the Jews were chased out of the ancient Palestine, they dreamed of their return to Jerusalem to rebuild the destroyed Temple.

Sukkot lasts for seven days. No work is permitted on the first and second days of the holiday.

Festival of Lights, Chanukkah

Chanukkah, the Jewish festival of rededication, also known as the festival of lights, is an eight day festival beginning on the 25th day of the Jewish month of Kislev. In the West, Chanukkah is probably one of the best known Jewish holidays, not because of any great religious significance, but because of its proximity to Christmas. Many non-Jews think of this holiday as the Jewish Christmas.

Chanukkah, from the Hebrew word for "dedication" or "consecration", marks the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem after its desecration by the forces of the Greek ruler, Antiochus IV. It commemorates the "miracle of the container of oil." According to the Talmud, at the re-dedication following the victory of the Jewish revolt against the repressive Antiochus, there was only enough consecrated olive oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days, which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate fresh olive oil.

Chanukkah is not an important religious holiday like Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, and Passover. The only religious observance related to the holiday is the lighting of candles. The candles are arranged in a candelabrum called a menorah that holds nine candles: one for each night, plus a Shammash (servant) at a different height.

Purim

Purim is one of the most joyous holidays on the Jewish calendar. It commemorates a time when the Jewish people living in Persia were saved from extermination.

The story of Purim is told in the Biblical book of Esther. The heroes of the story are Esther, a beautiful young Jewish woman living in Persia, and her cousin Mordecai, who raised her as if she were his daughter. Esther was taken to the house of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, to become his wife. King Ahasuerus loved Esther more than his other women and made Esther queen, but the king did not know that Esther was a Jew, because Mordecai told her not to reveal her identity.

The villain of the story is Haman, an arrogant, egotistical advisor to the king. Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai refused to bow down to Haman, so Haman plotted to destroy the Jewish people.  Haman told the king, "There is a certain people scattered abroad and dispersed among the peoples in all the provinces of your realm. Their laws are different from those of every other people's, and they do not observe the king's laws; therefore it is not befitting the king to tolerate them." The king gave the fate of the Jewish people to Haman, to do as he pleased to them. Haman planned to exterminate all of the Jews.

Mordecai persuaded Esther to speak to the king on behalf of the Jewish people. This was a dangerous thing for Esther to do, because anyone who came into the king's presence without being summoned could be put to death, and she had not been summoned. Esther fasted for three days to prepare herself, then went into the king. He welcomed her. Later, she told him of Haman's plot against her people. The Jewish people were saved, and Haman was hanged on the gallows that had been prepared for Mordecai.

Purim is celebrated on the 14th day of Adar, which is usually in March. The 13th of Adar is the day that Haman chose for the extermination of the Jews, and the day that the Jews battled their enemies for their lives.  In leap years, when there are two months of Adar, Purim is celebrated in the second month of Adar, so it is always one month before Passover.

The word "Purim" means "lots" and refers to the lottery that Haman used to choose the date for the massacre.

It is customary to hold carnival-like celebrations on Purim and to perform plays and parodies. Purim is not subject to the Sabbath-like restrictions on work that some other holidays are; however, some sources indicate that we should not go about our ordinary business on Purim out of respect for the holiday.

Jewish Life Cycle

Birth

In Jewish law, although the human soul exists before birth, human life begins at birth.  Judaism completely rejects the notion of original sin. According to Judaism, a child is born pure, free from sin.  Birth by Caesarean section is permitted in Jewish law, as would be just about any procedure necessary to preserve the life of the mother or the child, with mother's life being the first priority.

Abortion is generally speaking forbidden, unless the life of the mother is at risk.

After a child is born, the father is given the honor of an aliyah (an opportunity to bless the reading of the Torah) in synagogue at the next opportunity. At that time, a blessing is recited for the health of the mother and the child. If the child is a girl, she is named at that time. A boy's name is given during the brit milah (ritual circumcision).

Circumcision

Of all of the commandments in Judaism, the brit milah (literally, Covenant of Circumcision) is probably the one most universally observed. Even the most secular of Jews, who observe no other part of Judaism, almost always observe these laws.

Circumcision is performed on the eighth day of the child's life, during the day. As with almost any commandment, circumcision can be postponed for health reasons.  The circumcision is performed by a mohel , a pious, observant Jew educated in the relevant Jewish law and in surgical techniques. Circumcision performed by a regular non-Jewish physician does not qualify as a valid brit milah, regardless of whether a rabbi says a blessing over it, because the removal of the foreskin is itself a religious ritual that must be performed by someone religiously qualified.

Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah

Bar Mitzvah" literally means "son of the commandment" and "Bat Mitzvah" means "daughter of commandment". Technically, the term refers to the child who is coming of age, but it is more commonly used to refer to the coming of age ceremony itself.

Under Jewish Law, children are not obligated to observe the commandments, although they are encouraged to do so as much as possible to learn the obligations they will have as adults. At the age of 13 for boys and 12 for girls, children become obligated to observe the commandments. The bar mitzvah ceremony formally marks the assumption of that obligation, along with the corresponding right to take part in leading religious services, to count in a minyan (the minimum number of people needed to perform certain parts of religious services), to form binding contracts, to testify before religious courts and to marry.

A Jewish boy automatically becomes a bar mitzvah upon reaching the age of 13 years, and a girl upon reaching the age of 12 years. No ceremony is needed to confer these rights and obligations. The popular bar mitzvah ceremony is not required, and does not fulfill any commandment. The ceremonies and receptions that are commonplace today were unheard of as recently as a century ago.

Many people mock the idea that a 12 or 13 year old child is an adult, claiming that it is an outdated notion based on the needs of an agricultural society. But bar mitzvah is not about being a full adult in every sense of the word, ready to marry, go out on your own, earn a living and raise children. The Talmud makes this abundantly clear. Bar mitzvah is simply the age when a person is held responsible for his actions and minimally qualified to marry.

Marriage

The Torah provides very little guidance with regard to the procedures of a marriage. The method of finding a spouse, the form of the wedding ceremony, and the nature of the marital relationship are all explained in the Talmud.

According to the Talmud, 40 days before a male child is conceived, a voice from heaven announces whose daughter he is going to marry, literally a match made in heaven!

The Talmud specifies that a woman is acquired (i.e., to be a wife) in three ways: through money, a contract, and sexual intercourse. Ordinarily, all three of these conditions are satisfied, although only one is necessary to effect a binding marriage.

Acquisition by money is normally satisfied by the wedding ring. The wife's acceptance of the money is a symbolic way of demonstrating her acceptance of the husband. In all cases, the Talmud specifies that a woman can be acquired only with her consent, and not without it.

As part of the wedding ceremony, the husband gives the wife a ketubah, the marriage contract. The ketubah spells out the husband's obligations to the wife during marriage, conditions of inheritance upon his death, and obligations regarding the support of children of the marriage. It also provides for the wife's support in the event of divorce.  The ketubah is often a beautiful work of calligraphy, framed and displayed in the home.

The process of marriage occurs in two distinct stages: kiddushin (commonly translated as betrothal) and nisuin (full-fledged marriage). The relationship created by kiddushin can only be dissolved by death or divorce. However, the spouses do not live together at the time of the kiddushin, and the mutual obligations created by the marital relationship do not take effect until the nisuin is complete.

In the past, the kiddushin and nisuin would routinely occur as much as a year apart. During that time, the husband would prepare a home for the new family. Today, the two ceremonies are normally performed together.

Because marriage under Jewish law is essentially a private contractual agreement between a man and a woman, it does not require the presence of a rabbi or any other religious official. It is common, however, for rabbis to officiate. 

Jewish Wedding Ceremony

It is customary for the bride and groom not to see each other for a week preceding the wedding. There are exuberant celebrations in the synagogue at the time of the wedding. Throwing candy at the bride and groom to symbolize the sweetness of the event is common. Traditionally, the day before the wedding, both the bride and the groom fast.

Before the ceremony, the bride is veiled, in remembrance of the fact that Rebecca veiled her face when she was first brought to Isaac to be his wife.

The ceremony itself lasts 20-30 minutes. The bride enters, accompanied by her mother and the groom's mother, and approaches and circles the groom.  Two blessings are recited over wine: one the standard blessing over wine and the other regarding the commandments related to marriage. The man then places the ring on woman's finger. After the kiddushin is complete, the ketubah is read aloud.

The bride and groom stand beneath the chuppah, a canopy held up by four poles, symbolic of their dwelling together and of the husband's bringing the wife into his home. The importance of the chuppah is so great that the wedding ceremony is sometimes referred to as the chuppah. The bride and groom recite seven blessings in the presence of a minyan (prayer quorum of 10 adult Jewish men). The couple then drinks the wine. The groom smashes a glass (or a small symbolic piece of glass) with his right foot, to symbolize the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. The couple then retires briefly to a completely private room, symbolic of the groom bringing the wife into his home.

This is followed by a festive meal. Exuberant music and dancing traditionally accompany the ceremony and the reception.

Married life

According to the Torah and the Talmud, a man was permitted to marry more than one wife, but a woman could not marry more than one man. Although polygyny was permitted, it was never common. The Talmud never mentions any rabbi with more than one wife. Around 1000 C.E., Ashkenazic Jewry banned polygyny because of pressure from the predominant Christian culture. It continued to be permitted for Sephardic Jews in Islamic lands until the latter half of the twentieth century.

A husband is responsible for providing his wife with food, clothing and sexual relations. Marital sexual relations are the woman's right, not the man's. A man cannot force his wife to engage in sexual relations with him, nor is he permitted to abuse his wife in any way .

A married woman retains ownership of any property she brought to the marriage, but the husband has the right to manage the property and to enjoy profits from the property.

The minimum age for marriage under Jewish law is 13 for boys, 12 for girls; however, the kiddushin can take place before that, and often did in medieval times. The Talmud recommends that a man marry at age 18, or somewhere between 16 and 24. Today, young Jews rarely marry before the age of twenty.

Divorce

Judaism recognized the concept of "no-fault" divorce thousands of years ago. Judaism generally maintains that it is better for a couple to divorce than to remain together in a state of constant bitterness and strife. Under Jewish law, a man can divorce a woman for any reason or no reason. In fact, Jewish law requires divorce in some circumstances: when the wife commits a sexual transgression, a man must divorce her, even if he is inclined to forgive her. Many aspects of Jewish law discourage divorce. The procedural details involved in arranging a divorce are complex and exacting.

Life

In Judaism, life is valued above almost all else. The Talmud notes that all people are descended from a single person, thus taking a single life is like destroying an entire world, and saving a single life is like saving an entire world. Of the 613 commandments, only the prohibitions against murder, idolatry, incest and adultery are so important that they cannot be violated to save a life. Judaism not only permits, but often requires a person to violate the commandments if necessary to save a life.

Because life is so valuable, Jews are not permitted to do anything that may hasten death. Suicide is strictly forbidden by Jewish law.

Death

In Judaism, death is not just a tragedy, even when it occurs early in life or through unfortunate circumstances. Death is a natural process. Jews believe that our deaths, like our lives, have meaning and are all part of God's plan. In addition, Jews have a firm belief in an afterlife, a world to come, where those who have lived a worthy life will be rewarded.

Mourning practices in Judaism are extensive, but they are not an expression of fear or distaste for death. Jewish practices relating to death and mourning have two purposes: to show respect for the dead, and to comfort the living, who will miss the deceased.